Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text. The English language draws a terminological distinction (not all languages do) between translating (a written text) and interpreting (oral or sign-language communication between users of different languages); under this distinction, translation can begin only after the appearance of writing within a language community.
Cancer risk in humans exposed to low radiation doses is usually calculated based upon estimates obtained at higher doses. As many cancers originate in stem cells, studying low dose radiation effects on these cells is particularly important.
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