Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text. The English language draws a terminological distinction (not all languages do) between translating (a written text) and interpreting (oral or sign-language communication between users of different languages); under this distinction, translation can begin only after the appearance of writing within a language community.
Palaeoceanography studies the history of the oceans, including their chemistry, temperature and salinity. This information enables conclusions to be drawn regarding configuration and intensity of ocean circulation, which in turn is the main amplifier of climate change.
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