Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text. The English language draws a terminological distinction (not all languages do) between translating (a written text) and interpreting (oral or sign-language communication between users of different languages); under this distinction, translation can begin only after the appearance of writing within a language community.
Human activities have strongly modified the biogeochemical cycles of metallic trace elements (MTEs) increasing their fluxes towards and between surface environments. New isotope data has fostered better models of MTE sources, transfer and reactivities in dynamic and multi-sources systems, as required for targeting emission controlled strategies to combat origins and consequences of metal contamination.