A doctorate is the third and last cycle of higher education in Europe. Almost everywhere you need a master's degree, you spend 3–4 years on your own research and you finish by defending a thesis. What differs from country to country is how you live during those years: in some countries you are an employee with a salary, in others a student with a scholarship – and in some you have to find funding yourself.
Employee with a salary – in Denmark, the Netherlands, Norway and Sweden doctoral candidates are normally employed by the university; in Estonia and Slovenia most work as junior or young researchers. In France the contrat doctoral is a 3-year employment contract with at least €2,300 gross a month (2026).
Student with a scholarship – in Poland every doctoral school pays a scholarship (PLN 3,570.50 a month, after the mid-term evaluation PLN 5,500.50 in 2026), in Slovakia at least €1,025.50 a month, in Czechia a doctoral income of at least 1.2 times the minimum wage, in Italy a borsa (often €16,243 gross a year in 2026). In the UK a UKRI studentship pays at least £21,805 a year from 1 October 2026.
Mixed or self-funded – in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Finland and Belgium you can be employed on a research project, hold a scholarship or fund yourself. In Hungary, Greece, North Macedonia and Turkey many doctoral students pay fees or work alongside their studies.
MSCA Doctoral Networks – the EU's Marie Skłodowska-Curie Actions fund doctoral positions in international networks of universities and companies. Candidates can be of any nationality, must enrol in a doctoral programme and, as a rule, must not have lived or worked in the country of the recruiting organisation for more than 12 months in the 36 months before recruitment. The EU pays a living allowance and, where applicable, a mobility allowance. Positions are advertised on EURAXESS, the EU portal for research jobs – read more about Doctoral Networks.
Click a country for our full guide (doctoral studies are in the chapter “Doctoral studies (PhD)”). The last column shows doctoral programmes in our database as of September 2026 – more countries will follow.
| Country | Typical length | Status of doctoral candidates | In our database |
|---|---|---|---|
| Austria | 3 years or more | student; in doctoral schools usually employed by the university | 171 |
| Belgium | about 4 years | doctoral assistant (employee) or grant holder | – |
| Bulgaria | 3 years (part-time 4) | student; state-funded places by exam | 1,823 |
| Croatia | 3 years | student | 148 |
| Cyprus | 6–16 semesters | student, often on a researcher post | 126 |
| Czechia | 3–4 years | student with a doctoral income of at least 1.2 × the minimum wage | 1,463 |
| Denmark | 3 years | employee on a 3-year contract | – |
| Estonia | mostly 4 years | junior researcher (employee) | 81 |
| Finland | about 4 years | often employed by a university, or on a grant | 113 |
| France | 3 years | employee with a contrat doctoral – at least €2,300 gross a month (2026) | – |
| Germany | no fixed length | research staff (TV-L E13) or scholarship | – |
| Greece | 3–6 years | student | – |
| Hungary | about 4 years | student; limited state-funded places | 303 |
| Iceland | 3–4 years | student; research fund grants | 8 |
| Ireland | 3–4 years | student with a stipend | – |
| Italy | 3 years | scholarship (borsa), often €16,243 gross a year (2026) | – |
| Latvia | 3–4 years | student; monthly stipend on state-funded places | 88 |
| Liechtenstein | 3 years or more | research staff or company funding | 5 |
| Lithuania | up to 4 years | student with state support | – |
| Luxembourg | 3–4 years | student, often also an employee | 3 |
| Malta | full-time or part-time | student | 37 |
| Netherlands | 4 years | employee | – |
| North Macedonia | 3 years | mostly fee-paying | 149 |
| Norway | 3–4 years | employee | 109 |
| Poland | 3–4 years | scholarship of PLN 3,570.50, after mid-term evaluation PLN 5,500.50 a month (2026) | 952 |
| Portugal | 6–8 semesters | FCT studentships (1,600 in 2026) | 790 |
| Romania | 4 years | doctoral contract; some employed as research assistants | – |
| Serbia | 3 years | student; state-financed places | 290 |
| Slovakia | 3–4 years | scholarship of at least €1,025.50 a month (full-time) | 840 |
| Slovenia | 3 years | often a young researcher (employee) | 118 |
| Spain | up to 4 years | student; predoctoral contract from 56% of the reference salary | 1,604 |
| Sweden | about 4 years | employee; no tuition fees | – |
| Switzerland | 3–5 years | often employed as an assistant | 423 |
| Turkey | 4 years or more | student or research assistant | – |
| United Kingdom | 3–4 years | student; UKRI stipend at least £21,805 a year (from 1 October 2026) | 2,133 |
Search all doctoral programmes: Doctoral studies in Europe » · Before the doctorate: master's programmes in Europe »
Sources: Eurydice – national descriptions of third-cycle (PhD) programmes (updated between 2023 and October 2026); Marie Skłodowska-Curie Actions – Doctoral Networks; etudiant.gouv.fr; UKRI; Law on Higher Education and Science (Poland); Royal Decree 1251/2024 (Spain); UKIM; FCT. As of October 2026.
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